Rainnie, a 27-year-old Chinese woman in California, was desperate for her baby to arrive early after learning that US President Donald Trump's executive order would revoke birthright citizenship for those born after February 19 - the day before her due date.
The executive order, signed on Trump's first day back in the White House, directs agencies to deny recognition of citizenship for children born in the US after the cut-off date if neither parent is a US citizen or lawful permanent resident.
More than 20 states have filed lawsuits to challenge Trump's order, and federal judges have blocked it from taking effect. The issue might ultimately reach the US Supreme Court. For now, the future of birthright citizenship is up in the air, and those hoping to take advantage of it are stuck in legal limbo.
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Rainnie, who asked to use only her English name for privacy reasons, is one of many Chinese women who have travelled to the US specifically to give birth because of the opportunities that American citizenship presents for their children.
It is not known how many babies are born each year to parents who come to the US for "birth tourism".
The US Department of State has estimated the figure is in the thousands, while the Centre for Immigration Studies, a think tank that advocates for lower immigration numbers, has estimated it is 20,000 or more.
Rainnie asked her doctors in Los Angeles if they could induce labour a day or two before the Trump order was to go into effect, but the hospital rejected her request.
She tried every method she could think of to induce labour: taking traditional Chinese medicine, walking 10,000 to 20,000 steps a day and doing more strenuous exercise such as climbing stairs.
"I did everything I could to get the baby to come sooner on its own," she said.
"I was furious - why did it have to be this one day that made all the difference?"
Yan, a 40-year-old employee at a Beijing consulting firm, said many parents worried about the uncertainties of entering the US while pregnant, as well as securing a passport for their babies. Yan oversees a group chat for Chinese parents who plan to go to the US to give birth. The group has more than 370 members.
He said that at least five parents he knew had gone to the US before January 20 to avoid the risk of being denied entry after Trump's inauguration.
"Their due dates are in May. While it's normal to arrive three months early, they came an extra month earlier just to be safe," he said.
At least four mothers in the chat group who managed to enter the US opted for caesarean sections to ensure their newborns were delivered by February 19, according to Yan.
Rainnie's baby was born on February 8. The early delivery was partly a result of a new diagnosis for the mother: anxiety. Rainnie lost about 4.5kg (10lbs) in the two weeks after Trump issued the order, and the hospital determined that it was no longer safe for her to wait.
"At the time, I couldn't sleep or eat. I was vomiting, and the weight of my belly was putting pressure on my organs, making it hard for me to breathe," she said. "Every day felt like a struggle."
Rainnie said she had prepared for the worst but believed birthright citizenship would not be revoked.
While Trump's order might not survive legal challenges, he could still find ways to make it harder for people from China and elsewhere to travel to the US to give birth. These measures could include instructing border and immigration agents to make entry into the US more difficult.
This is one of the biggest concerns shared by those who plan to travel to the US on a tourist visa to give birth.
In 2020, the US State Department specified that applicants would be denied tourist visas if consular officers believed they were primarily travelling to the US to give birth - a move by the first Trump administration aimed at restricting birth tourism.
The uncertainty has prompted some future parents to consider Canada as an alternative.
Jasper Wang, a 30-year-old parent based in Beijing, has been researching hospitals and recovery facilities in Vancouver with his wife, who is expected to deliver in late July.
Nevertheless, the US, particularly Seattle, remained their preferred destination, according to Wang.
"If the US policies change, we will immediately drive up to Canada from there," he said.
Yan said birthright citizenship was considered the most efficient and affordable way to secure a US passport. He and his wife travelled to the country to have their child last year.
"It could cost a lot more when you arrive as an international student and later apply for a green card, which might not even guarantee success despite all the money you spent," he said.
Rainnie has spent more than 500,000 yuan (US$69,000) on her three-month stay.
She said a US passport meant her son's future would be on "easy mode".
"It will be much easier for him to settle anywhere with a US passport. If he excels academically, his citizenship will give him a clear advantage in finding a job," she said.
"If he doesn't, he won't have to face the intense competition back [in China] - even working in a skilled trade could earn him a decent income."
Additional reporting by Mia Nulimaimaiti
This article originally appeared in the South China Morning Post (SCMP), the most authoritative voice reporting on China and Asia for more than a century. For more SCMP stories, please explore the SCMP app or visit the SCMP's Facebook and Twitter pages. Copyright © 2025 South China Morning Post Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright (c) 2025. South China Morning Post Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved.